Kulóskap the master, and other Algonkin poems

I became interested in Indian languages and lore at Bar Harbor, Me., in 1887, chiefly through my able coadjutor. It was Mr. Leland’s important work, “The Algonquin Legends of New England” (Boston, 1885), which inspired me to make my first investigations in this field. Mr. Leland was indeed the pioneer in examining the oral literature of the northeastern Algonkin tribes, a fact which few scholars seem to recognize. To him especially, as well as to the late Rev. Silas Rand of Nova Scotia and to Miss Abbey Alger of Boston, do we owe some highly valuable additions to our knowledge of early eastern Algonkin thought. My own researches have been devoted more to linguistic and phonetic investigations among the Canadian Abenakis than to comparative mythological study--in which, however, I feel a very deep interest. In the present work I have had the pleasant task of arranging and editing Mr. Leland’s material, to which I have added some of my own collections. Mr. Leland’s poems are indicated by the letter L and my contributions by the letter P.

I gladly take this opportunity to express my gratitude to my friend, Mr. A. S. Gatschet of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, for a great deal of valuable advice and instruction given to me at different times during my American researches. His extensive knowledge of Algonkin philology and folk-lore has always been most kindly placed at my disposal.

The existing representatives of the Algonkin or Algic race may be separated linguistically into three great divisions: the Blackfeet of the extreme west, whose idiom differs most greatly from all the other dialects;[5] the Cree-Ojibwe of the middle west, which embraces a number of closely allied linguistic variations[6] and the Wabanaki races of the eastern coast, with whom the present work is concerned. It should be noted that the Algonkin languages, like all American idioms, are polysynthetic, i.e., either by means of prefixes and suffixes which were themselves separate words, or, by combining the radicals with other radicals, they build up words and often sentences from original radicals which, in all probability, were primitively monosyllabic. These original stems were in reality only indifferent themes which might be used practically in any sense, be it nominal or verbal. An excellent example of polysynthesis is seen in the combination ndalagaʿkimzi Alsigontegok, “I learned it at St. Francis” (Abenaki), which may be analyzed as follows: n, inseparable prefix of the first person, dal the prepositional element “in” or “at” (cf. the separable post-position tali, “in”), √_agaʿkim_, the root “to learn, teach”--itself a reduplicated form of original √_kim_, “learn”--and, finally, -_zi_, the reflexive ending. Alsigontegok is the locative case of Alsigontegw, “river of empty habitations,” the Abenaki name for the Indian village of St. Francis, near Pierreville. The termination -_tegw_, locative tegok, always means “river,” but cannot be used separately. If the reader will reflect that the entire linguistic structure is arranged on this plan, the immense physical difficulty of these idioms will be appreciated. On the other hand, the Algonkin languages, by reason of their very power to form these long idea-words, are admirably adapted for narration and song, however poor a medium they might be for modern business.

Among the following poems and tales will be found selections taken from Passamaquoddies, Penobscots, Abenakis, Micmacs and Delawares, all of which tribes are members of the so-called Wabanaki branch of the Algonkin stock and are consequently nearly related in language and folk-lore. This term Wabanaki or Oñbanaki (Abenaki) means “land of the dawn or east,” and undoubtedly points to that section of country in which these people first established tribal relations. Wabanaki (Oñbanaki) is also a common term for “a man from the east.”[7]

The Passamaquoddy Indians of Pleasant Point, Me., numbering about five hundred in all, are identical with the Milicetes or Etchemins of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The name Passamaquoddy is a purely local term, meaning “spearers of pollock fish” (peskátum). The correct form is Pestumokádyik. These people are by far the most interesting remnant of the Wabanaki, as they still retain an unusually extensive oral literature, embracing love poems, legends, and historical tales of considerable value. It will be noticed, moreover, that, of the material given in the present work, that coming from the Passamaquoddy is by far the best from a literary point of view. I need only call the reader’s attention to the very remarkable song recording the attack of the squirrels on Lappilatwan, who dwelt in the birch tree, “ever sitting with his mouth open” (wechkutonébit), a song of which Mr. Leland gives a most charming version. I know no parallel to this in any other literature. The wonderful song of Nipon, the summer, and the truly tender legend of the loves of the Leaf and the Firebird will serve still further to illustrate the purity of Passamaquoddy thought and diction.

The following brief historical sketch, taken from the manuscripts of the Passamaquoddy Louis Mitchell, will give some idea of the conditions which prevailed among the Wabanaki previous to the coming of the Europeans.

“In former days the Wabanaki nation, the Indians called Megʾwek, or Mohawks, and other members of the Iroquoian Six Nations, were wont to wage bloody and unceasing war with one another. The Wabanaki nation consisted of five tribes: Passamaquoddies, Penobscots, Micmacs, Milicetes, and the tribe, now extinct, which formerly inhabited the banks of the Kennebec River. The bitterest foes of the Wabanaki were undoubtedly the Megʾwek or Mohawks, who on the slightest provocation would send bands to harry them and destroy their crops. The Mohawks invariably treated their prisoners with the most merciless severity, showing no pity even to the women and children. A favorite torture which they frequently practised was to build a large fire of hemlock coals, into the flames of which they drove their captives, compelling them to walk back and forth over the glowing embers until relieved by death. No case is on record where a brave of the Wabanaki succumbed to the fearful pain and begged for mercy. The warriors would always pace the fiery path with undaunted resolution and without uttering a sound, until nature put an end to their agony. Tortures of this sort were practised by all the tribes, but the Mohawks exceeded the others in cruelty.”

“The cause of the strife was an hereditary dispute about hunting grounds. Besides the enmity which they nourished in common against the Six Nations, the Wabanaki had also internal disputes. Thus, the Penobscots were at feud with the Milicetes and the Micmacs with the Passamaquoddies.”

“The first war between the last two tribes was brought about by the quarrel of two boys, sons of chiefs. On this occasion the Passamaquoddies were on a friendly visit to the Micmacs, during which the sons of the Passamaquoddy and Micmac chiefs went shooting together. They both shot at a white sable, killing the animal by their joint effort, but each lad claimed it as his game. Finally, the Passamaquoddy boy, becoming enraged, killed the son of the Micmac chief. The latter on hearing of the murder could think only of vengeance, and positively refused to listen to the Passamaquoddy chief’s attempt at reconciliation. The latter even offered the life of his own son who had been guilty of the murder, but all to no purpose. In consequence of this unfortunate occurrence, the celebrated ‘great war’ was then declared, which lasted many years.”

“The Micmacs although more numerous than their enemies, were inferior warriors, so that the victory was always won (sic!) by the Passamaquoddies. So great was the hostile spirit that the two tribes fought whenever they met, paying no heed to the time of year. On one occasion, the Passamaquoddies went to Tlancowatik, thirty miles west of St. John, N. B., with a small party consisting principally of women and children, with the chief and a few braves. At this place they met a number of Micmacs on their way to Passamaquoddy Bay. The Micmac chief being a lover of fair play ordered his men to land on an island to await the coming of a messenger. The other chief sent word that on the following day ‘the boys would come out to play.’ As the Passamaquoddy chief had very few men able to bear arms, he made the women attire themselves like warriors so that from a distance they might be mistaken for men, and directed them to play on the beach shouting and laughing as if entirely fearless. The Micmac chief, deceived by this stratagem and being afraid, summoned his braves to council, and setting forth the disasters which had been caused by the long war advised a treaty of peace. This proposition was made to the Passamaquoddies who, wearied by the perpetual state of unrest, gladly acceded to the request. A general council was accordingly called, by which it was decided that ‘as long as the sun rises and sets, as long as the great lakes send their waters to the sea, so long should peace reign over the two tribes.’

“The usual ceremonies for making peace were then observed, as follows: (1) a marriage was contracted between a brave of the challenging people and a maiden of the challenged people. This was regarded as a type of perpetual future good will. (2) A feast lasting two months was celebrated nightly; and (3) games of ball, canoe and foot races and other sports were carried on. After such ceremonies were over no breach of a treaty is on record, not even a single murder.”

“After the great Micmac war was ended, the Passamaquoddies lived at peace except for occasional raids of Mohawks, but the latter finally received a blow from which they never recovered, the details of which are as follows: It was the custom of the Mohawks to make night attacks, and at one time, when the Passamaquoddies were at the head of Passamaquoddy Bay, the Mohawks approached the camp, which was called Quenasquamcook, with the purpose of utterly destroying it. On this occasion, however, they were seen by a Passamaquoddy brave whose people lay in ambush for them. It was the custom of chiefs to wear medallions of white wampum shells which were visible at a long distance, particularly in the moonlight. Picking out in this way the person of the Mohawk chief whose name was Lox (‘Wolverine’) the watching braves shot him first, owing to which calamity the Mohawks were thrown into confusion and fled. The Passamaquoddies followed them as soon as day broke, but the tracks were so scattered that they could not find the refugees. It was ascertained afterwards that the Mohawks had quarrelled among themselves, one party being in favor of making peace with the enemy, while another faction was strongly opposed to such a measure. The discussion of the question ended in a fierce combat. This was the final blow to the Mohawk cause, so that the nation ever afterward sought to be at peace with the Passamaquoddies.”