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A Short History of Freethought Ancient and Modern, Volume 2 of 2 is a broad historical survey of religious skepticism, rationalism, deism, biblical criticism, and related intellectual movements across Europe and the United States. This volume ranges from the religious persecutions of Tudor England through seventeenth- and eighteenth-century freethought in Britain, France, the Netherlands, Germany, and other European states, then follows developments in America and the nineteenth century. Its scope extends beyond theology into literature, science, philosophy, ethics, sociology, politics, and Oriental civilizations. The book is arranged as a detailed sequence of national and thematic chapters, supported by extensive notes and an index.
Robertson writes in a learned, forceful, sometimes combative historical style. He weighs the influence of thinkers such as Spinoza, Voltaire, Hume, Paine, Darwin, Strauss, Comte, and Mill while examining persecution, censorship, apologetics, and changing public opinion. The prose reflects an era confident in large intellectual narratives and progress through criticism. It will appeal to readers interested in the history of ideas, secularism, religious controversy, science, and the ways cultural movements shape one another.
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§ 1. Holland. Elizabeth Wolff. Leenhof. Booms. Influence of Bayle. Passerano. Lack of native freethought literature 352 § 2. The Scandinavian States.
1. Course of the Reformation. Subsequent wars. Retrogression in Denmark 354 2. Holberg's Nicolas Klimius 355 3. Sweden. Queen Christina 357 4. Swedenborg 358 5. Upper-class indifference. Gustavus III. Kjellgren and Bellman. Torild. Retrogression in Sweden 359 6. Revival of thought in Denmark. Struensee. Mary Wollstonecraft's survey 361
§ 3. The Slavonic States.
1. Poland. Liszinski 362 2. Russia. Nikon. Peter the Great. Kantemir. Catherine 363
§ 4. Italy.
1. Decline under Spanish Rule. Naples 365 2. Vico 365 3. Subsequent scientific thought. General revival of freethought under French influence 367 4. Beccaria. Algarotti. Filangieri. Galiani. Genovesi. Alfieri. Bettinelli. Dandolo. Giannone. Algarotti and the Popes. The scientific revival. Progress and reaction in Tuscany. Effects of the French Revolution 368
§ 5. Spain and Portugal.
1. Progress under Bourbon rule in Spain. Aranda. D'Alba 372 2. Tyranny of the Inquisition. Aranda. Olavidès 373 3. Duke of Almodobar. D'Azara. Ricla 373 4. The case of Samaniego 374 5. Bails. Cagnuelo. Centeno 375 6. Faxardo. Iriarte 375 7. Ista. Salas 376 8. Reaction after Charles III 376 9. Portugal. Pombal 377
§ 6. Switzerland.
Socinianism and its sequelæ. The Turrettini. Geneva and Rousseau. Burlamaqui. Spread of deism 378
Chap. XX--Early Freethought in the United States
1. Deism of the revolutionary statesmen 381 2. First traces of unbelief. Franklin 381 3. Jefferson. John Adams. Washington 382 4. Thomas Paine 383 5. Paine's treatment in America 384 6. Palmer. Houston. Deism and Unitarianism 385
Chap. XXI.--Freethought in the Nineteenth Century
The Reaction. Tone in England. Clericalism in Italy and Spain. Movement in France and Germany 386 The Forces of Renascence. International movement. Summary of critical forces. Developments of science. Lines of resistance 389
Section 1.--Popular Propaganda and Culture
1. Democracy. Paine. Translations from the French 391 2. Huttman. Houston. Wedderburn 393 3. Pietist persecution. Richard Carlile. John Clarke. Robert Taylor. Charles Southwell. G. J. Holyoake. Women helpers 393 4. Hetherington. Operation of blasphemy law 395 5. Robert Owen 395 6. The reign of bigotry. Influence of Gibbon 398 7. Charles Bradlaugh and Secularism. Imprisonment of G. W. Foote. Treatment of Bradlaugh by Parliament. Resultant energy of secularist attack 399 8. New literary developments. Lecky. Conway. Winwood Reade. Spencer. Arnold. Mill. Clifford. Stephen. Amberley. New apologetics 402 9. Freethought in France. Social schemes. Fourier. Saint-Simon. Comte. Duruy and Sainte-Beuve 404 10. Bigotry in Spain. Popular freethought in Catholic countries. Journalism 406 11. Fluctuations in Germany. Persistence of religious liberalism. Marx and Socialism. Official orthodoxy 409 12. The Scandinavian States and Russia 412 13. "Free-religious" societies 413 14. Unitarianism in England and America 414 15. Clerical rationalism in Protestant countries. Switzerland. Holland. Dutch South Africa 415 16. Developments in Sweden 417 17. The United States. Ingersoll. Lincoln. Stephen Douglas. Frederick Douglass. Academic persecution. Changes of front 419
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